NAT 5: Norman MacCaig- poetry

Norman MacCaig



Norman MacCaig was born in Edinburgh on the 14th November in 1910. MacCaig's formal education was firmly rooted in the Edinburgh soil: he attended the Royal High School and then Edinburgh University where he studied Classics. He then trained to be a teacher at Moray House in Edinburgh and spent a large part of his life as a primary school teacher.

During the war MacCaig refused to fight because he did not want to kill people who he felt were just the same as him. He therefore spent time in various prisons and doing landwork because of his pacifist views.

Having spent years educating young children, MacCaig then went on to teach university students when in 1967 he became the first Fellow in Creative Writing at Edinburgh University, and he later held a similar post while teaching at the University of Stirling.

Norman MacCaig's poetry began as part of the New Apocalypse Movement, a surrealist mode of writing which he later disowned turning instead to more precise, often witty observations. He was great friends with Hugh MacDiarmid and other Scottish poets he met with in the bars of Edinburgh to debate, laugh and drink. Although he was never persuaded by his literary friends to write in Scots, he was respected by friends such as MacDiarmid as having made an important contribution to literature.

As he became older, MacCaig's fame spread and he received such honours as the O.B.E. and the Queen's Medal for Poetry, yet it was at home in Edinburgh where he was probably most appreciated. This was evident at his 75th, 80th, and 85th birthday parties when the cream of the Scottish literati and musicians came together for readings and musical performances.

By the time of his death in January 1996, Norman MacCaig was known widely as the grand old man of Scottish poetry. 
ØThough he spent much of his life and career in Edinburgh, MacCaig’s mother’s Highland ancestry was an important part of his identity, and he spent his summers in Assynt, Scotland, in the northwest Highlands.

ØMacCaig produced sixteen volumes of poetry in total.

ØIn 1940 he married Isabel Munro and they had two children.

ØAs MacCaig grew older he began to write about death and it is believed that ‘Visiting Hour’ is based on his wife’s death.

ØWhether writing about people, animals and places either in his beloved Assynt in the west Highlands (his mother’s ancestral country) or the city of Edinburgh (where he lived all his life), he combined ‘precise observation with creative wit’.

ØIn his later years, with the passing of friends and family, his poems became often very moving – though he never lost his sharp eye. He hated talking about himself; he was dismissive of the writing process (‘a one or a two cigarette poem’); he could be very kind to people, but also quite cutting.


'Brooklyn Cop'

•The poem, written in 1968, is based on an experience that MacCaig had in America.
•Brooklyn is a rough district in New York.
•Hieroglyphs are sacred symbols used in Egyptian picture writing, but these are now sometimes referred to as things which are difficult to read.
•A nightstick is an American policeman’s truncheon.

Notes

This is a type of poem MacCaig often writes - the portrait of an individual. This poem perhaps differs in that most of MacCaig's poems of this kind present portraits of people that poet knows well. The Brooklyn cop created here is more of a stereotype than an individual. Again, MacCaig is able to use the cultural background of his readers which has been heavily influenced by American TV and films to help fill in the details of the New York policeman.

The central theme of the poem is the thin dividing line between civilisation and savagery and MacCaig looks at the effects on one individual, and on society, of having to patrol that fine line.

The picture of the cop in the first verse, or stanza, is not flattering. A typical MacCaig simile opens the poem comparing the cop - unfavourably - to a gorilla-  this type of light, almost jokey opening is a very common device in MacCaig poems, particularly in those which deal with a reality which is harsh.

The message of the cop's lack of sensitivity is rammed home by the images which pile up in the next few lines. This man is '...thick-fleshed,', a play on the cliché 'thick-skinned', a tough-man, perhaps with a soft yet bloody interior, who carries menace with him. This idea of menace is reinforced by the puzzling image of the '...two

Hieroglyphs in his face that mean trouble’, denoting a man who is either emotionless or very good at hiding his emotions.

Hieroglyphs were picture characters used in ancient Egyptian writing. Here they appear to refer to the eyes of the cop which present a single message to any observer - trouble. MacCaig is able to strengthen this impression by ending the line on '...mean,' heightening the double sense of the word.

All of these images are used before we learn what the man is actually doing -patrolling the New York 'sidewalk' . This sidewalk is transformed into '...tissue...' as MacCaig introduces the central image of the poem. The delicacy of this '...thin tissue over violence.' contrasts with the impression of the crude bulk and weight of the cop which MacCaig has built up in the first lines of the poem.

The language of the cop appears to be as crude and masculine as the visual picture we have already been presented with. He speaks in familiar cliches, 'See you, babe...' like a caveman leaving the cave in the morning. But a cliche is normally an empty and meaningless phrase dulled by repetition; the point here is that he really means the words. The streets are dangerous and he might not return home that evening. Therefore, the cliched phrase is filled with personal meaning for him.

MacCaig's attitude to the cop appears to be ambiguous here. There is some sympathy for the brutal life that he leads but there is also a suggestion that this man is a brute- has he always been like this or has this side of him been created by his environment?  If we look at the repeated use of the word '...gorilla...' for example, we can see that the first use of the term is in a simile at the beginning of the poem. By the end of the first stanza the comparison is strengthened into a clear metaphor 'He is a gorilla...'. This image is continued later in the poem and we will return to it at that point. Is this change symbolic of this nature (his gorilla-like attributes) having grown over time?

Much of the rest of the poem is taken up by repeated questions that MacCaig asks, but provides no final answers to. In the second stanza he suggests what might result if the tissue tears. The repetition of '...should...' and '...what...' is used here to strengthen the idea of mindless, meaningless violence- the variety of it, the uncertainty and sudden nature of it. The cop '...plunges...' through into a storm of violence whose vagueness is heightened by the use of '...what...' and the strange, seedy, names of the places which fall within his territory.There is symbolism at play in the structure here as well with ‘plunge’ being on a line of its own, causing the reader’s eyes to ‘plunge’ quickly down through the line- symbolising that sudden fall into violence.  The '...Whamburger...' itself seems to suggest violence. Anyone caught in this territory when the tissue breaks is in danger - guilty or innocent - as the people on the streets and the cop club and shoot their way through.

The tone of the poem changes to something more reflective in the third stanza and MacCaig seems almost to be sorry for the man who has to do a job like this. Once again the stanza is one long question to which no answer is provided. After the frenzied activity of stanza two a quieter tone is used here.

However, the use of the word '...gorilla...' for the third time in the poem seems to undercut the sympathy MacCaig is suggesting. Now the poet makes no attempt at comparison. There is no 'like' or 'is' but merely the straight expression '...gorilla with a nightstick,’. A '...nightstick...' is the longer American equivalent of the baton used by British police and is an interesting word in the context of the poem about New York. It's as if the stick itself can defeat the power. Is the ‘night’ in ‘nightstick’ symbolic of darkness? Is a stick used to fight darkness/evil, or a stick that is dark and evil itself?

Sympathy for the cop returns at the end of this stanza and seems more genuine. The fact that the man might never return home, if he takes one plunge too many through the tissue of violence, makes some of the clichés used in the first stanza more understandable. The inclusion of '...this time,' in parenthesis slows the final line down and increases the sympathy we might feel- this is something he has to endure, time and time again. Who would want to do a job like this and what does having a job like this do to a human being?

In typical style though, MacCaig turns these expectations around in the short final stanza. The first few words echo the question asked in stanza 3:

'And who would be who have to be his victims?'

The key word here is ‘victims’. The use of it suggests that the cop is as much a creator of violence as a keeper of the peace and that those involved in the clubbings and gunshots are in some way innocent.

The use of '...have to be...' suggests that the violence he is a part of is somehow inevitable and part of fate or the human condition. The repetition of 'be' and the rhyme this creates gives a steady rhythm to this line which emphasises the feeling of fate and certainty which closes the poem.

The violence of this huge city - particularly at night - seems to brutalise its inhabitants. Even with its technological sophistication humanity cannot overcome the darkness which lies within itself.

The irony of this is heightened by the fact that America is a relatively young country and the settlers who travelled there saw themselves as bringing civilisation to the wilderness and taming the savagery of the original inhabitants. The result of this exercise in civilisation, however, seems to be the '...gorilla with a nightstick,' who patrols the streets attempting to keep the peace. The Brooklyn cop appears to be as savage as any Indian but in a job that is intended to maintain and promote civilisation. MacCaig is perhaps asking- who or what is to blame for this? And is there a way to fix it?

Structure

In stanza one MacCaig describes
–the physical appearance of a character from an urban environment.
–The character’s psychological profile.
–The character’s urban environment.

•In stanza 2, setting is further described and we learn more about the violent situations he experiences/ finds himself embroiled in.

•In stanza 3, we think about how it would feel to be in the dangerous situation that the cop is in and how he puts his life at risk daily.

•In stanza 4 ,he suggests that the character is just as dangerous as the criminal

Stanzas become shorter / much more condensed. Reflecting speaker grasping at different ideas / becoming lost. Speaker becoming fragmented and uncertain. Perhaps also reflective of the personality of the cop- starts off secure, certain and then becomes fragmented.

FULL ANNOTATION

Hotel Room, 12th Floor

In this poem, written in 1968, the poet spends a night in a New York hotel room. One or two words or ideas you might not be familiar with are explained below:

•Empire State Building - At the time the poem was written, the tallest building in the world.

•PanAm  - The national airline of U.S.A.  at this time (went bust in the 80s)

•Warwhoop –A  cry uttered on going into battle- normally by indians in the Wild West.

•Ululating  - Howling or wailing in an undulating way (see above).

•Gulches  - An American name for a ravine or narrow rocky valley.

•Flats  - Among the several meanings of this word are: apartments (rooms that people live in) and, low lying plains or tracts of land covered by shallow water typical of certain areas of south and west U.S.A.

•Stockades - A barrier of stakes erected as a defence against 

Understanding the poem

•Instead of enjoying the experience of being in the hotel room and being impressed by the sites of the city, he feels trapped in his hotel room due to the violence on the streets below.
•During the day he comments on some of the famous buildings of the New York skyline that he can see from his window. These represent man’s economic and technological achievements.
•At night he concentrates on the sounds of the city below him. These represent the violence that is always close to the surface in human nature.
•MacCaig uses the change from daylight to darkness to show what happens when civilising influences are removed and man’s more primitive side emerges.

Central ideas

Note: Ululation
An ululation is a long, wavering, high-pitched sound resembling the howl of a dog or wolf with a trilling quality. It is an onomatopoetic word derived from Latin. It is produced by moving the tongue, rapidly, from left to right repeatedly in the mouth while producing a sharp sound.
Ululation is found in some singing techniques and ritual situations. In Arab countries ululation is commonly used by women to express celebration, especially at weddings and also in funerals of martyrs in the Muslim world, since they are believed to be going to Jannah.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qYp7ZYz34Yw

www.freesound.org/samplesViewSingle.php?id=62876

Annotation

NOTES

'Hotel Room 12th Floor'
by Norman MacCaig



Setting
The poem is set in a hotel room on the 12th floor of a hotel in New York.  The poet describes what he sees from this room in both day and night time.

Content/Narrative
The poet is visiting New York.   Instead of enjoying the experience and being impressed by the sites of the city, he feels trapped in his hotel room by the violence on the streets below.  During the day he comments on some of the famous buildings of the New York skyline that he can see from his window.  These represent man’s economic and technological achievements- he sees these as dangerous and corrupt. At night he concentrates on the sounds of the city below him.  These represent the violence that it always close to the surface in human nature.

MacCaig uses symbolism in the change from daylight to darkness to show what happens when civilising influences are removed and man’s more primitive side emerges.  The civilising influences are the impressive skyscrapers, man’s economic and technological achievements, the electric lights etc. These represent wealth and status and the fact that they are so much in the public eye reminds us that we have progressed as humans.  However, without these skyscrapers in sight, under the cover of darkness, humans become more savage and animalistic, and hurt each other.  This is man’s more primitive side emerging (i.e. our more basic, savage side).  We become like animals.

These experiences and thoughts, which have imprisoned him in his hotel room, makes him consider if mankind is really as civilised as it thinks.

Breakdown of Analysis
Stanza 1



The beginning of the poem creates a sense of immediacy in the poem:
                        'This morning I watched from here'
By stating the time at the beginning, here and now, he suggests how deeply he was affected by his experience as he wants to write about it right away; this indicates how important the themes and ideas of the poem were to him.  This sense of immediacy is emphasised later in the stanza when he writes ‘But now Midnight has come in . . .’  He is writing the poem as he experiences the violence in the streets below.  This conveys how powerful an impact his experience had on him.

Part of the answer is revealed when the poet describes what he sees from his window during the day.  The imagery he uses is unexpected, strange and uncomfortable:

                                 'I watched from here
a helicopter skirting like a damaged insect
the Empire State building, that
jumbo-sized dentist drill, and landing
on the roof of the PanAm skyscraper.'

Firstly he uses a simile comparing ‘a helicopter’ to ‘a damaged insect’.  The comparison is effective as at a distance the size, sound and movement of the helicopter resemble an insect.  However, his choice of the word ‘damaged’ suggests that there is something wrong with the helicopter, not in the sense that it is broken, but rather in the sense that mankind is somehow broken- it is being used incorrectly:  perhaps also that our view of what is impressive is broken.  The suggestion here is that no amount of money ploughed into technological advancements like this will cover up the fact that, deep down, humans are savage, violent and cruel.  Helicopters fly above, representing wealth and status, while normal people live in poverty below.  Moreover,  Insects also are often found around decaying remains so the image reminds us of death and dying not wealth and achievement, which we would normally associate with helicopters (remember, helicopters are only owned by the government or the rich; they represent wealth, power and technological advancement).  MacCaig uses very unusual imagery to describe the helicopter and therefore seems to be suggesting that there is more this famous city than first meets the eye.

In addition, the metaphor he uses to describe the Empire State building emphasises this idea.  The shape of the building resembles ‘that jumbo-sized dentist drill’ because it narrows towards the top and has a long thin radio mast.  The image of the drill suggests pain and suffering, since this is what we associate with a dentist’s drill.  The word choice of ‘jumbo’ suggests something excessive and over-sized; again the suggestion is that we plough too much money into impressive, iconic landmarks and ignore the poor.  It does not matter how many beautiful, tall buildings we build, it will not disguise the fact that deep down we are uncivilised and savage (as represented by the ‘Midnight’ later in the poem).  Again, MacCaig seems disturbed by what he sees.  His tone is dismissive and worried. He is unimpressed by these symbols of wealth and human achievement.  For the poet, these modern wonders are a mask of civilisation over the true nature of the city, which is savage and uncivilised.

The next part of stanza one moves to night- time and the poet begins to develop an alternative view of the city:

'But now Midnight has come in
from foreign places. Its uncivilised darkness
is shot at by a million lit windows, all
ups and acrosses.'

The poet personifies ‘Midnight’ by his use of the capital letter.   Midnight is often associated with evil and the image suggests the evil side of human nature is now being displayed in the city.  This idea is supported by his use of the expression ’uncivilised darkness’.  He is referring to the dark side of human nature and the barbaric behaviour that results from it. MacCaig then extends this image of darkness by contrasting it with light.  The symbolism of ‘ups and acrosses’ remind us of the cross on which Christ died.  As Christ is often described as ‘the light of the world’ the poet creates a contrast between good and evil. The image of the light shooting at the darkness suggests that good tries to overcome evil.  However, in stanza two he goes on to suggest that this battle is not so easily won.


Stanza Two



Stanza two is set again in the poet’s hotel room at night. The night time setting, with its connotations of evil, is appropriate as he focuses on the violence and poverty of New York. This time it is not what he sees but what he hears he describes.  The first thing that strikes us is how loud the streets below must be:

                                              'I lie in bed, between
a radio and a television set.'

These lines suggest the poet has both the radio and TV turned on to try to drown out the noise below.  He goes on to show how unpleasant these noises are and what they represent about human behaviour. To do this, McCaig begins an extended metaphor which not only cleverly describes the noise but creates a contrast between civilised and uncivilised society:

'the wildest of warwhoops continually ululating through
the glittering canyons and gulches –'

The metaphor compares the sounds of the Native Americans of the old Wild West to the ‘police cars and ambulances’ in the streets below.  The ‘warwhoops’ are their cries as they go into battle.  They remind us of the violence in the streets below that the ambulances and police cars are racing to.    The ‘glittering canyons and gulches’ refer to the streets between the brightly lit modern skyscrapers and remind us of the landscape of the Wild West where ambushes and violent battles took place.  This similarity between America’s past and present suggests that although mankind has advanced economically and technologically we are no more civilised than we were in our barbaric past.  This is MacCaig’s main point:  humans try to disguise their uncivilised, violent nature by building beautiful, impressive buildings and pretending to be civilised, but this evil side to our nature is always there.  He suggests that human nature is evil at heart; it is an extremely pessimistic view of the world.

The poet next goes on to describe the results of the violence.  The short list is an effective reminder of the pain and suffering hinted at in stanza one:

'. . . the broken bones, the harsh screaming
from coldwater flats, the blood
glazed on the sidewalks.'

The effective use of synecdoche (i.e. he says ‘the’ instead of ‘his’, ‘hers’ or ‘theirs’, he mentions ‘bones’ instead of people) depersonalises the suffering and so highlights that anyone can fall victim to violence.  The sounds of pain are emphasised by the word ‘harsh’ but it is where the sounds come from that is important to the poet’s theme.   It is not from the wealthy skyscrapers but from the run-down buildings without hot water where the poor live. They are the ones living in primitive conditions so it is hardly surprising that primitive behaviour is the result.  His words emphasise the pain and suffering that poverty brings.  The ‘blood glazed on the sidewalks’ suggests that violence and the pain and suffering it causes are always among us. ‘Glazed’ connotes completely covering.
Evil therefore is not just our violence but also the way society neglects the poor.  He suggests in stanza three that we will pay for this neglect.
Stanza Three



In stanza three the poet sums up his thoughts but offers no solution to the problems of man’s violent nature.  He continues the metaphor he began in stanza two.

                                                'The frontier is never
                                    somewhere else.'

The frontier in the Wild West was the edge of civilisation, the border between the European settlers and the wild, unconquered land, the front of the battle.  By saying it is ‘never somewhere else’ the poet is suggesting that there is no border, no barrier, anywhere else to keep the evil out.  He suggests that evil or violence are always within us, everyone, YOU, and we are no more civilised than our ancestors.

McCaig ends the poem with a pessimistic view of human nature:
                                                            'And no stockades
                        can keep the midnight out.'

Stockades were high fences built to protect those who live inside them.  What MacCaig is suggesting is that no matter how high we build our buildings, develop our technology or increase our prosperity, evil will always exist within us.  His tone is despair at our inability to overcome our most basic instincts.

He concludes by suggesting that evil will always overcome good- that we can not rid ourselves of the evil within us.


'Basking Shark'

Main Ideas

This poem depicts the startling encounter MacCaig had with a Basking Sea.

Basking sharks are one of the largest species of the shark family, in fact they are the second largest species of any fish, reaching sizes in excess of ten metres and weighing several tonnes.

They are harmless filter feeders, having no true teeth, and as such pose no real danger to humans. Still, a surprise close encounter with a creature of that size would be unnerving, particularly if close enough to touch the oars of a small boat, as happened to MacCaig. 

This encounter sparked in him a reflection on the comparative paths of evolution such differing species took: basking sharks on the one hand, relatively unchanged for millions of years, and humans on the other, vastly changed since the days when marine life first crawled ashore and adapted to a life on land. 

This train of thought leads to a disturbing question: who is the monster? Is it the shark, literally monstrous in size and aspect to the human; or is it the poet himself, representative of the human race and all the dark, monstrous deeds of which our race is capable?

The thought remains with the poet, unresolved, as the shark swims off.

Structure

This poem is set out in five stanzas, each of three lines, and each line being end-rhymed with the others in the stanza. The meter of the poem is also fairly regular: the first two lines of each stanza have five stressed syllables, while the final one has four. The effect of the final shorter stressed line is to create a sense of fitting closure to the stanza.

 In this poem the tightness of structure serves to encapsulate the uniqueness of the experience, and the regularity of rhythm and rhyme matches the rhythmic quality of the rise and the fall of the sea itself, and likewise the steady pulling of the oars.

The subject of the poem is never mentioned in the body of the poem itself, instead we infer from the title what the poet's small boat collided with that day.

In a Nutshell:

What is the poem about?

• Evolution
• Makes us question who the monster is- the cruel nature of mankind.
• Teaches us not to judge things by their appearance.
• Everything is deeply connected.

2. Why is this important?

• It helps us to understand where we came from and to better plan for the future
• So we are more cautious of ourselves and not so scared of animals. So we can try to change or improve ourselves- so we make the right choices.
• So we learn the truth about things- rather than simply judging things/people straight away.
• Helps us to understand and look after our world

3. Links to other poems (so far)?

• They all talk about the failures of humanity or the cruelty and suffering caused by humans.
• They all use powerful imagery
• They all teach us not to judge things purely on looks.

NEW TECHNIQUES AND ANNOTATION

Neologism: 

noun

a newly coined word or expression.

the coining or use of new words.

Synonyms/Connotations: a new word, new expression, new term, new phrase, newly coined word, made-up word, invented word,  portmanteau word

In this poem: 'Slounge' is a neologism.

Overview of Stanzas

Stanza One – MacCaig describes the chance meeting with the shark and makes it clear it has happened before. 

Stanza Two – the meetings have had an effect on him and he thinks back to one particular meeting.

Stanza Three – he begins to question his position in the evolutionary process. 

Stanza Four – explains how indistinct humans were from other species at the beginning of the evolutionary process, and questions who the real ‘monster’ is? Who should we be scared of?

Assisi

Vocab:

Hypocrisy - being insincere, pretending to be have qualities that you do not.
e.g. telling a person not to do something, then doing it yourself


Benevolence- the quality of being well meaning; kind, kind-hearted; compassionate, considerate, charitable etc.

Poverty – a state of having little money or possessions

Illiterate- unable to read or write.

Context:

• ‘Assisi’ was written by Norman MacCaig after visiting the Basilica of St. Francis of Assisi in Italy.
• MacCaig was so disturbed by what he saw, he was moved to write the poem.
• St. Francis was a Catholic priest who lived with the poor after witnessing their poverty.
• He was born in Assisi
• He had a great love of animals, birds and the poor
• He was supposed to be so pious and blessed that he was able to speak to animals.
• He was ‘Sainted’ for this reason – and for his help with the poor
• He is the patron saint of animals and the environment.
• He is also the first ever recorded person to have experienced the stigmata.
• The Basilica was built to honor him and all that he stood for.
• The Basilica of St. Francis is a massive, 2-level church, consecrated in 1253. 
• However, the church itself is now perhaps more famous for its impressive architecture and the fine frescoes (paintings) by the artist Giotto which can be found inside, than for its connection to St Francis.. Its 13th-century frescoes portray the life of St. Francis. 
• The crypt houses the saint’s stone sarcophagus.

Overview

The poem forces the reader into an uncomfortable situation where the themes of hypocrisy and corruption inherent in the affectation of religious piety are brought into sharp relief. 

Written in the poetic form of free verse, the poet sidesteps the traditional form of rhyme and rhythm in an attempt to develop this idea of corruption.  Through careful word choice and stark imagery the poet presents a vivid depiction of both the duality of man and the societal dichotomy of wealth and poverty.

The poet immediately introduces these themes through the title. Ambiguously referring to either the city of Assisi or St. Francis of Assisi, the title Assisi alludes to both.  The city of Assisi is known to be ornate and grandiose; home of magnificent architecture and associated with great wealth. In direct contrast, St Francis of Assisi dedicated his life to the poor and gave up his aristocratic riches for a monastic life, symbolising great poverty. Hence, the one-word title, before even being aware of the situation of the poem, is skilfully used by MacCaig to introduce the theme of hypocrisy.

In the first stanza, MacCaig introduces the dwarf as a pitiful, isolated figure by describing his hands as being 'on backwards'. Both literally and metaphorically, this portrays the dwarf's uselessness and isolation from society. The subsequent line 'sat slumped like a half-filled sack' develops this idea. Suggesting a lack of rigidity, the simile invokes an image of the dwarf being misshapen and deformed, whilst sibilance is used by MacCaig to heighten the feeling of disconcertion in the reader. 

The piteous image of the dwarf is expanded in the lines 'tiny twisted legs from which/Sawdust might run'. In fact, in these two lines alone, MacCaig employs a myriad of techniques to develop the image of the dwarf's worthlessness: lexical choice of 'twisted' not only suggests pain and functional ineptitude but has connotations of inversion and corruption, which nods again to the central themes of the poem; the use of consonance on the hard 't', is used to promote an emotional response of unease; and enjambment on 'Sawdust', highlights the objectification of the dwarf. The metaphor is extended from the previous line and is intended to dehumanise the dwarf, characterising him as an insentient article, and stripping him of human quality.

A dry, sarcastic tone is adopted by MacCaig when he describes the 'three tiers of churches built" to show how elaborate the Church is and to highlight the irony of such a pitiful creature being in such a grandiose setting. 

We are also told that the church is built "In honour of St. Francis". St Francis was a humble man, who would not have cared for opulent cathedrals being built in his name. He surrendered such riches to help people like the dwarf, therefore the fact that he sits outside hungry and destitute is deeply ironic. 

Other techniques are employed by the poet to emphasise this. For example, the enjambment of this line highlights the large scale of the building- the line being in tiers like the church. Similarly, MacCaig changes the expected syntax of the last line of this stanza "Of not being dead yet" to emphasize the irony. This inversion also reflects inequality and injustice, whilst simultaneously perpetuating a disconcerting tone.

In the second stanza, we are introduced to the priest who is conducting a guided tour of Giotto's frescoes inside the church. This is poignant because it illustrates the corruption prevalent in the Church. The frescoes were originally commissioned to teach the poor the stories from the Bible. In Assisi, they are being used as a source for capital gain, and not for spiritual development, as was their original purpose.

 The priest's role has been diverted from that of a spiritual guide, to that of a tour guide and MacCaig uses a self-deprecating tone in this stanza to underline the palpable hypocrisy. He also reveals his contempt for a social duality; that great riches and great poverty often exists side by side. This is evident from the lines "...I understood/The explanation and/The cleverness". There is clear sarcasm on that word ‘cleverness’. Enjambment is used by MacCaig to great effect here, showing his contempt for the priest's neglect, and by extension, society's neglect.

In the final stanza, MacCaig uses other techniques to explore the main themes. Firstly, he uses an extended metaphor of the priest as a farmer and the tourists as poultry. He describes a "rush" of tourists "clucking contentedly". The word "rush" connotes an absence of deliberation, suggesting that the tourists are unaware of the irony of the situation- they are driven by sheer greed. The use of the alliteration and onomatopoeia alludes to the tourists being simple-minded and unthinking, like chickens. The metaphor is extended by describing the tourists as "fluttering", conjuring an image of them blindly following the priest, ignorant of any hypocrisy. Another technique used by MacCaig to reflect the main themes is also used here: "....as he scattered the grain of the word". This corruption of a phrase used in the Bible is deliberately intended to echo corruption of the Church's values. It also reflects that, in the poet's opinion, the priest has forgotten his spiritual responsibilities and the tone is rather disparaging.

In the close of the poem, MacCaig further displays his revulsion and a sense of injustice. He tells us "it was they who had passed/The ruined temple outside". The word "they" conveys an accusatory tone. The group (and priest) had failed to notice the dwarf's suffering, too absorbed and shallow to realise how hypocritical they were being: it is here we learn that the poet is repulsed by this situation. 

The juxtaposition of "ruined temple" conveys a powerful message. The word "ruined" symbolises the dwarf's broken physical exterior, whilst in contrast, the word "temple" symbolises the dwarf's perfect and sacred interior i.e. his humanity/morality.

The imagery of the dwarf in this last stanza is particularly poignant and successfully unites the poem's main themes. MacCaig, quite brutally, further describes the dwarf's physical appearance: "...whose eyes/Wept pus, whose back was higher/Than his head, whose lopsided mouth..."). This harsh depiction of the dwarf is employed to create a particular effect: to shock the reader into feeling pity; in fact, we are being defied to withhold it.

However, in the final lines of the poem, MacCaig reclaims the dwarfs humanity by revealing his inner beauty. The simile "...voice as sweet/As a child's when she speaks to her mother/Or a bird's when it spoke to St Francis" very clearly displays the purity and innocence of the dwarf. The tone also represents the sheer injustice and unnecessary pain that is obviously a big part of the dwarf's life and society. Why should his suffering go unnoticed?

Through a plethora of techniques, MacCaig successfully engages our sympathy and through exploration themes such as corruption inherent in ‘civilisation’ and hypocrisy, we are forced to question what it means to be human. The duality of man (the good vs evil in all of us) unfolds through both characters of the priest and dwarf. The priest may be a man who serves God, but the role he plays in this poem serves only capitalism and greed. The dwarf, who is broken, ‘twisted’ externally, is whole, pure,  internally - deformed to the world, but perfect to God. Through the structure of the poem we observe these two lives as separate, yet MacCaig communicates absolute synonymy. Thus we have Assisi: a poem of conscience.

Some techniques to look out for:

Irony – although not uniquely a poetic technique, irony is used regularly in the English language. In its simplest form irony is saying something but actually meaning the opposite. E.g. Talking over Ms Bellamy’s teaching would be a really good idea…She loves that!

You can also get an ironic situation. E.g. A man (particularly a paramedic!) being knocked over by an ambulance or an English teacher making a spelling mistake.

Extended metaphor: a metaphor that is developed or sustained. E.g. not used just once but is expanded on or occurs more than once in a work